Saudi Arabia traces its roots back to the earliest civilizations of the
Arabian Peninsula. Over the centuries, the peninsula has played an important
role in history as an ancient trade center and as the birthplace of Islam, one
of the world’s major monotheistic religions.
Since King Abdulaziz Al-Saud established the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
in 1932, its transformation has been astonishing.
In a few short decades, the Kingdom has turned itself from a desert nation
to a modern, sophisticated state and a major player on the international stage.
Early History
The first concrete evidence of human presence in the Arabian Peninsula dates
back 15,000 to 20,000 years. Bands of hunter-gatherers roamed the land, living
off wild animals and plants.
As the European ice cap melted during the last Ice Age, some 15,000 years
ago, the climate in the peninsula became dry. Vast plains once covered with
lush grasslands gave way to scrubland and deserts, and wild animals vanished.
River systems also disappeared, leaving in their wake the dry river beds
(wadis) that are found in the peninsula today.
This climate change forced humans to move into the lush mountain valleys
and oases. No longer able to survive as hunter-gatherers, they had to develop
another means of survival. As a result, agriculture developed – first in
Mesopotamia, then the Nile River Valley, and eventually spreading across the
Middle East.
The development of agriculture brought other advances. Pottery allowed
farmers to store food. Animals, including goats, cattle, sheep, horses and
camels, were domesticated, and people abandoned hunting altogether. These
advances made intensive farming possible. In turn, settlements became more
permanent, leading to the foundations of what we call civilization – language,
writing, political systems, art and architecture.
An Ancient Trade Center
Located between the two great centers of civilization, the Nile River Valley
and Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula was the crossroads of the ancient world.
Trade was crucial to the area’s development; caravan routes became trade
arteries that made life possible in the sparsely populated peninsula.
The people of the peninsula developed a complex network of trade routes to
transport agricultural goods highly sought after in Mesopotamia, the Nile
Valley and the Mediterranean Basin. These items included almonds from Taif,
dates from the many oases, and aromatics such as frankincense and myrrh from
the Tihama plain.
Spices were also important trade items. They were shipped across the
Arabian Sea from India and then transported by caravan.
The huge caravans traveled from what is now Oman and Yemen, along the great
trade routes running through Saudi Arabia’s Asir Province and then through
Makkah and Madinah, eventually arriving at the urban centers of the north and
west.
The people of the Arabian Peninsula remained largely untouched by the
political turmoil in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and the eastern
Mediterranean. Their goods and services were in great demand regardless of which
power was dominant at the moment – Babylon, Egypt, Persia, Greece or Rome. In
addition, the peninsula’s great expanse of desert formed a natural barrier that
protected it from invasion by powerful neighbors.
The Birth of Islam
Around the year 610, Muhammad, a native of the thriving commercial center of
Makkah, received a message from God (in Arabic, Allah) through the Angel
Gabriel. As more revelations bid him to proclaim the oneness of God
universally, the Prophet Muhammad’s following grew.
In 622, learning of an assassination plot against him, the Prophet led his
followers to the town of Yathrib, which was later named Madinat Al-Nabi (City
of the Prophet) and now known simply as Madinah. This was the Hijrah, or
migration, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
Within the next few years, several battles took place between the followers
of the Prophet Muhammad and the pagans of Makkah. By 628, when Madinah was
entirely in the hands of the Muslims, the Prophet had unified the tribes so
successfully that he and his followers reentered Makkah without bloodshed.
The Islamic Empire
Less than 100 years after the birth of Islam, the Islamic Empire extended from
Spain to parts of India and China. Although the political centers of power had
moved out of the Arabian Peninsula, trade flourished in the area.
Also, a large number of pilgrims began regularly visiting the peninsula,
with some settling in the two holy cities of Makkah and Madinah. These pilgrims
facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultures between the people of the
peninsula and other civilizations of the Arab and Muslim worlds.
The emergence of Arabic as the language of international learning was
another major factor in the cultural development of the Arabian Peninsula. The
Muslim world became a center for learning and scientific advances during what
is known as the “Golden Age.” Muslim scholars made major contributions in many
fields, including medicine, biology, philosophy, astronomy, arts and
literature. Many of the ideas and methods pioneered by Muslim scholars became
the foundation of modern sciences.
The Islamic Empire thrived well into the 17th century, when it broke up
into smaller Muslim kingdoms. The Arabian Peninsula gradually entered a period
of relative isolation, although Makkah and Madinah remained the spiritual heart
of the Islamic world and continued to attract pilgrims from many countries.
The First Saudi State
In the early 18th century, a Muslim scholar and reformer named Shaikh Muhammad
bin Abdul Wahhab began advocating a return to the original form of Islam. Abdul
Wahhab was initially persecuted by local religious scholars and leaders who
viewed his teachings as a threat to their power bases. He sought protection in
the town of Diriyah, which was ruled by Muhammad bin Saud.
Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud formed an agreement to
dedicate themselves to restoring the pure teachings of Islam to the Muslim
community. In that spirit, bin Saud established the First Saudi State, which
prospered under the spiritual guidance of bin Abdul Wahhab, known simply as the
Shaikh.
By 1788, the Saudi State ruled over the entire central plateau known as the
Najd. By the early 19th century, its rule extended to most of the Arabian
Peninsula, including Makkah and Madinah.
The popularity and success of the Al-Saud rulers aroused the suspicion of
the Ottoman Empire, the dominant power in the Middle East and North Africa at
the time. In 1818, the Ottomans dispatched a large expeditionary force armed
with modern artillery to the western region of Arabia. The Ottoman army
besieged Diriyah, which by now had grown into one of the largest cities in the
peninsula. Ottoman forces leveled the city with field guns and made it
permanently uninhabitable by ruining the wells and uprooting date palms.
The Second Saudi State
By 1824, the Al-Saud family had regained political control of central Arabia.
The Saudi ruler Turki bin Abdullah Al-Saud transferred his capital to Riyadh,
some 20 miles south of Diriyah, and established the Second Saudi State. During
his 11-year rule, Turki succeeded in retaking most of the lands lost to the
Ottomans. As he expanded his rule, he took steps to ensure that his people
enjoyed rights, and he saw to their well-being.
Under Turki and his son, Faisal, the Second Saudi State enjoyed a period of
peace and prosperity, and trade and agriculture flourished. The calm was
shattered in 1865 by a renewed Ottoman campaign to extend its Middle Eastern
empire into the Arabian Peninsula. Ottoman armies captured parts of the Saudi State,
which was ruled at the time by Faisal’s son, Abdulrahman. With the support of
the Ottomans, the Al-Rashid family of Hail made a concerted effort to overthrow
the Saudi State.
Faced with a much larger and better equipped army, Abdulrahman bin Faisal Al-Saud
was forced to abandon his struggle in 1891. He sought refuge with the Bedouin
tribes in the vast sand desert of eastern Arabia known as the Rub’ Al-Khali, or
‘Empty Quarter.’ From there, Abdulrahman and his family traveled to Kuwait,
where they stayed until 1902. With him was his young son Abdulaziz, who was
already making his mark as a natural leader and a fierce warrior for the cause
of Islam.
The Modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The young Abdulaziz was determined to regain his patrimony from the Al-Rashid
family, which had taken over Riyadh and established a governor and garrison
there. In 1902, Abdulaziz, – accompanied by only 40 followers – staged a daring
night march into Riyadh to retake the city garrison, known as the Masmak
Fortress. This legendary event marks the beginning of the formation of the
modern Saudi state.
After establishing Riyadh as his headquarters, Abdulaziz captured all of
the Hijaz, including Makkah and Madinah, in 1924 to 1925. In the process, he
united warring tribes into one nation.
On September 23, 1932, the country was named the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
an Islamic state with Arabic as its national language and the Holy Qur’an as
its constitution.
King Abdulaziz (1932-1953)
The legendary King Abdulaziz was a remarkable leader of imagination and vision
who set Saudi Arabia on the road to modernization. During his rule, King
Abdulaziz started building the country’s infrastructure. He established roads
and basic communications systems, introduced modern technology, and improved
education, health care and agriculture.
Although King Abdulaziz never traveled beyond the Arab world, he was a
highly sophisticated statesman. Foreign leaders and diplomats who met with him
came away impressed by his integrity and honesty. He was famous for dispensing
with diplomatic niceties in favor of frank and candid discussion. He was just
as well known for keeping his promises, whether given to a simple Bedouin or to
a world leader. These qualities enhanced his stature as a reliable and
responsible leader dedicated to peace and justice.
King Saud (1953-1964)
Abdulaziz’ eldest son Saud acceded to the throne upon his father’s death in
1953. He continued King Abdulaziz’s legacy, creating the Council of Ministers
and establishing the Ministries of Health, Education and Commerce. One of King
Saud’s greatest successes was the development of education – under his rule
many schools were established in the Kingdom, including its first institute of
higher education, King Saud University, in 1957.
King Saud also made his mark globally. In 1957, he became the first Saudi
monarch to visit the United States. In 1962 he sponsored an international
Islamic conference that would become the Muslim World League, headquartered in
Makkah.
King Faisal (1964-1975)
King Faisal bin Abdulaziz was a visionary innovator with a great respect for
tradition. He initiated the first of a series of economic and social
development plans that would transform Saudi Arabia’s infrastructure, especially
industry, and set the Kingdom on a path of rapid growth. He also established
the first public schools for girls.
In foreign policy, King Faisal showed a firm commitment to the Islamic
world. He was a central force behind the establishment in Jeddah in 1971 of the
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), a group of 56 Islamic countries
that promotes Islamic unity and cooperation.
Throughout the turbulent period of the 1960s and 1970s, which included two
Arab-Israeli wars and the oil crisis of 1973, King Faisal was a voice for
moderation, peace and stability.
King Khalid (1975-1982)
Khalid bin Abdulaziz succeeded King Faisal in 1975. King Khalid also emphasized
development, and his reign was marked by an almost explosive growth in the
country’s physical infrastructure. It was a period of enormous wealth and
prosperity for Saudi Arabia.
On the international stage, King Khalid was a prime mover in forming the
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981, an organization that promotes economic
and security cooperation among its six member countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,
Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.
King Fahd (1982-2005)
Under King Fahd bin Abdulaziz, who adopted the title Custodian of the Two Holy
Mosques, Saudi Arabia continued its tremendous socioeconomic development and
emerged as a leading political and economic force.
King Fahd was central to Saudi Arabia’s efforts to diversify its economy
and promote private enterprise and investment. He restructured the Saudi
government and approved the first nationwide municipal elections, which took
place in 2005.
One of King Fahd’s greatest accomplishments in Saudi Arabia was a series of
projects to expand the Kingdom’s facilities to accommodate the millions of
pilgrims who come to the country each year. These projects involved major
expansions of Islam’s two holiest sites, the Holy Mosque in Makkah and the
Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah, as well as airports and ports.
In the international arena, King Fahd worked actively to resolve regional
and global crises. These crises included the Arab-Palestinian conflict, Iraq’s
invasion of Kuwait, the Lebanese civil war in addition to conflicts in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Chechnya, Afghanistan, Somalia and Kashmir.
As Crown Prince in 1981, he proposed an eight-point plan to resolve the
Arab-Israeli conflict and give the Palestinians an independent state. The plan
was considered one of the first attempts to find a just and lasting settlement
that took into consideration the needs of both the Arabs and Israel. It was
unanimously adopted by the Arab League at a summit in Fez, Morocco in 1982.
King Fahd also dedicated years of diplomacy to resolving the civil war in
Lebanon. He hosted a meeting of Lebanese members of parliament in Taif, Saudi
Arabia in 1989. The meeting resulted in a national reconciliation accord signed
in Taif that ended the fighting and opened the way for reconstruction with help
from Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries.
Perhaps the greatest international crisis of King Fahd’s rule occurred when
Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990. The King played a key role in putting
together the international coalition that drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.
King Fahd was also concerned with humanitarian issues. Under his rule,
Saudi Arabia provided emergency humanitarian assistance to numerous countries,
including Somalia, Bosnia and Afghanistan, as well as countries suffering from
natural disasters, such as earthquakes (Turkey in 1999, Iran in 2003) and the
tsunami that struck Southeast Asia in December 2004.
King Abdullah (2005 - )
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz acceded to the
throne after the death of King Fahd on August 1, 2005.
King Abdullah was born in Riyadh in 1924, and received his early education
at the royal court. Influenced by his father King Abdulaziz, he developed a
profound respect for religion, history and Arab heritage. His years spent
living in the desert with Bedouin tribes taught him their values of honor,
simplicity, generosity and bravery, and instilled in him the desire to assist
in the development of his people.
As Crown Prince, he traveled widely in the Kingdom and inaugurated a number
of projects throughout the country. In 2005 he closely monitored the election
process for the country’s municipal councils.
The Prince’s first official visit to the United States was in 1976 when he
met with President Gerald Ford. Since then, he has made a number of visits to
the United States, including his most recent on June 29, 2010 when he met
with President Barak Obama at the White House.
His international diplomacy reflects Saudi Arabia’s leadership role in defense
of Arab and Islamic issues and for the achievement of world peace, stability
and security. Peace in the Middle East and the plight of the Palestinians are
of particular concern to King Abdullah. His proposal for a comprehensive
Arab-Israeli peace, presented at the Beirut Arab Summit in 2002, has been
adopted by the League of Arab States and is known as the Arab Peace Initiative.
King Abdullah has been unwavering in his condemnation of terrorism. At the
International Counterterrorism Conference in Riyadh in February, 2005, he
called for greater international cooperation to fight this global problem.
Crown Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz
His Royal Highness Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz was designated Crown Prince of
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and appointed Deputy Prime Minister, by Custodian
of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz on June 18, 2012, upon the
death of Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz. Crown Prince Salman also serves as
Minister of Defense.
Prince Salman was born in Riyadh on Dec. 31, 1935, and received his
education at the Prince’s School in Riyadh. He served as Deputy Governor of
Riyadh from March 1954 to April 1955, and Governor of Riyadh from April 1955 to
December 1960 and again from February 1963 to Nov. 5, 2011, when he was
appointed Minister of Defense.
Since 1956, Prince Salman has chaired various humanitarian and service
committees that provide relief from natural and man-made disasters. For
his humanitarian services, he has been awarded many medals and decorations,
including awards from Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Morocco,
Palestine, the Philippines, Senegal, the United Nations, Yemen, and the King
Abdulaziz Medal - First Class.
He is a recipient of several honorary degrees and academic awards,
including an honorary doctorate from the Islamic University of Madinah, the
Prince Salman academic award, and the Kant Medal by the Berlin-Brandenburg
Academy of Sciences and Humanities in appreciation of his contributions to the
field of science.
During official visits to the United States in April 2012, Prince Salman
met with President Barack Obama and a number of U.S. officials.
